Biology Flashcards
A1.1.1 Water as the medium for life1 deck18 cards
A1.1.2 Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules1 deck15 cards
A1.1.3 Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and consequences for organisms1 deck15 cards
A1.1.4 Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts for organisms1 deck17 cards
A1.1.5 Solvent properties of water as a medium for metabolism and transport 1 deck11 cards
A1.1.6 Physical properties of water and the consequences for animals in aquatic habitats1 deck14 cards
A1.1.7 Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth and reasons for its retention (HL only)1 deck18 cards
A1.1.8 Relationship between the search for extraterrestrial life and the presence of water (HL only)1 deck16 cards
A1.2.1 DNA as the genetic material of all living organisms1 deck20 cards
A1.2.2 Components of a nucleotide1 deck19 cards
A1.2.3 Sugar–phosphate bonding and the sugar–phosphate “backbone” of DNA and RNA1 deck17 cards
A1.2.4 Bases in each nucleic acid that form the basis of a code1 deck19 cards
A1.2.5 RNA as a polymer formed by condensation of nucleotide monomers1 deck16 cards
A1.2.6 DNA as a double helix linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs1 deck19 cards
A1.2.7 Differences between DNA and RNA1 deck17 cards
A1.2.8 Complementary base pairing in allowing genetic information to be replicated and expressed1 deck13 cards
A1.2.9 Diversity of possible DNA base sequences and its capacity for storing information1 deck12 cards
A1.2.10 Conservation of the genetic code as evidence of universal common ancestry1 deck12 cards
A1.2.11 Directionality of RNA and DNA (HL only)1 deck17 cards
A1.2.12 Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding as a component of DNA helix stability (HL only)1 deck14 cards
A1.2.13 Structure of a nucleosome (HL only)1 deck15 cards
A1.2.14 Evidence from the Hershey–Chase experiment for DNA as the genetic material (HL only)1 deck14 cards
A1.2.15 Chargaff’s data on pyrimidine and purine bases across diverse life forms (HL only)1 deck12 cards
A2.1.1 Conditions on early Earth and the pre-biotic formation of carbon compounds (HL only)1 deck15 cards
A2.1.2 Cells as the smallest units of self-sustaining life (HL only)1 deck15 cards
A2.1.3 Challenge of explaining the spontaneous origin of cells1 deck14 cards
A2.1.4 Evidence for the origin of carbon compounds1 deck14 cards
A2.1.5 Spontaneous formation of vesicles by coalescence of fatty acids into spherical bilayers1 deck17 cards
A2.1.6 RNA as a presumed first genetic material1 deck16 cards
A2.1.7 Evidence for a last universal common ancestor1 deck25 cards
A2.1.8 Approaches used to estimate dates of the first living cells1 deck17 cards
A2.1.9 Evidence for the evolution of the last universal common ancestor1 deck20 cards
A2.2.1 Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms1 deck16 cards
A2.2.2 Microscopy skills1 deck18 cards
A2.2.3 Developments in microscopy1 deck21 cards
A2.2.4 Structures common to cells in all living organisms1 deck20 cards
A2.2.5 Prokaryote cell structure1 deck4 cards
A2.2.6 Eukaryote cell structure1 deck19 cards
A2.2.7 Processes of life in unicellular organisms1 deck22 cards
A2.2.8 Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between animals, fungi, and plants1 deck20 cards
A2.2.9 Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes1 deck19 cards
A2.2.10 Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and electron micrographs1 deck17 cards
A2.2.11 Drawing and annotation based on electron micrographs1 deck21 cards
A2.2.12 Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis (HL)1 deck21 cards
A2.2.13 Cell differentiation (HL)1 deck22 cards
A2.2.14 Evolution of multicellularity (HL)1 deck4 cards
A2.3.1 Structural features common to viruses (HL)1 deck21 cards
A2.3.2 Diversity of structure in viruses (HL)1 deck19 cards
A2.3.3 Lytic cycle of a virus (HL)1 deck18 cards
A2.3.4 Lysogenic cycle of a virus (HL)1 deck18 cards
A2.3.5 Evidence for several origins of viruses from other organisms (HL)1 deck14 cards
A2.3.6 Rapid evolution in viruses (HL)1 deck18 cards
A3.1.1 Variation between organisms as a defining feature of life1 deck71 cards
A3.1.2 Species as groups of organisms with shared traits1 deck21 cards
A3.1.3 Binomial system for naming organisms1 deck19 cards
A3.1.4 Biological species concept1 deck23 cards
A3.1.5 Difficulties distinguishing between populations and species1 deck18 cards
A3.1.6 Diversity in chromosome numbers of plant and animal species1 deck21 cards
A3.1.7 Karyotyping and karyograms1 deck21 cards
A3.1.8 Unity and diversity of genomes within species1 deck14 cards
A3.1.9 Diversity of eukaryote genomes1 deck23 cards
A3.1.10 Comparison of genome sizes1 deck21 cards
A3.1.11 Current and potential future uses of whole genome sequencing1 deck20 cards
A3.1.12 Difficulties applying the biological species concept (HL)1 deck19 cards
A3.1.13 Chromosome number as a shared trait within a species (HL)1 deck271 cards
A3.1.14 Engagement with local plant or animal species to develop a dichotomous key (HL)1 deck17 cards
A3.1.15 Identification of species from environmental DNA in a habitat using barcodes (HL)1 deck20 cards
A3.2.1 Need for classification of organisms (HL)1 deck24 cards
A3.2.2 Difficulties classifying organisms into the traditional hierarchy of taxa (HL)1 deck19 cards
A3.2.3 Advantages of classification corresponding to evolutionary relationships (HL)1 deck15 cards
A3.2.4 Clades as groups of organisms with common ancestry and shared characteristics (HL)1 deck19 cards
A3.2.5 Gradual accumulation of sequence differences (HL)1 deck20 cards
A3.2.6 Base sequences of genes or amino acid sequences of proteins (HL)1 deck111 cards
A3.2.7 Analysing cladograms (HL)1 deck13 cards
A3.2.8 Using cladistics to investigate evolutionary relationships (HL)1 deck143 cards
A3.2.9 Classification of all organisms using evidence from rRNA base sequences (HL)1 deck19 cards
A4.1.1 Evolution as change in the heritable characteristics of a population1 deck18 cards
A4.1.2 Evidence for evolution from base sequences in DNA or RNA and amino acid sequences1 deck16 cards
A4.1.3 Evidence for evolution from selective breeding of domesticated animals and crop plants1 deck15 cards
A4.1.4 Evidence for evolution from homologous structures1 deck15 cards
A4.1.5 Convergent evolution as the origin of analogous structures1 deck20 cards
A4.1.6 Speciation by splitting of pre-existing species1 deck20 cards
A4.1.7 Roles of reproductive isolation and differential selection in speciation1 deck16 cards
A4.1.8 Differences and similarities between sympatric and allopatric speciation (HL)1 deck21 cards
A4.1.9 Adaptive radiation as a source of biodiversity (HL)1 deck15 cards
A4.1.10 Barriers to hybridization and sterility of interspecific hybrids (HL)1 deck26 cards
A4.1.11 Abrupt speciation in plants by hybridization and polyploidy (HL)1 deck18 cards
A4.2.1 Biodiversity as the variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations1 deck20 cards
A4.2.2 Comparisons between current number of species on Earth and past levels of biodiversity1 deck21 cards
A4.2.3 Causes of anthropogenic species extinction1 deck21 cards
A4.2.4 Causes of ecosystem loss1 deck19 cards
A4.2.5 Evidence for a biodiversity crisis1 deck23 cards
A4.2.6 Causes of the current biodiversity crisis1 deck21 cards
A4.2.7 Need for several approaches to conservation of biodiversity1 deck18 cards
A4.2.8 Evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered species in conservation prioritization1 deck22 cards
B1.1.1 Chemical properties of a carbon atom1 deck22 cards
B1.1.2 Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions1 deck14 cards
B1.1.3 Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions1 deck16 cards
B1.1.4 Form and function of monosaccharides1 deck21 cards
B1.1.5 Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds1 deck21 cards
B1.1.6 Structure of cellulose 1 deck15 cards
B1.1.7 Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition1 deck15 cards
B1.1.8 Hydrophobic properties of lipids1 deck21 cards
B1.1.9 Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions1 deck21 cards
B1.1.10 Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids1 deck23 cards
B1.1.11 Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy storage and thermal insulation1 deck20 cards
B1.1.12 Formation of phospholipid bilayers1 deck18 cards
B1.1.13 Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer1 deck20 cards
B1.2.1 Generalized structure of an amino acid1 deck17 cards
B1.2.2 Condensation reactions forming dipeptides and longer chains of amino acids1 deck17 cards
B1.2.3 Dietary requirements for amino acids1 deck21 cards
B1.2.4 Infinite variety of possible peptide chains1 deck27 cards
B1.2.5 Effect of pH and temperature on protein structure1 deck21 cards
B1.2.6 Chemical diversity in the R-groups of amino acids (HL)1 deck20 cards
B1.2.7 Impact of primary structure on the conformation of proteins (HL)1 deck20 cards
B1.2.8 Pleating and coiling of secondary structure of proteins (HL)1 deck19 cards
B1.2.9 Dependence of tertiary structure on functional groups (HL)1 deck16 cards
B1.2.10 Effect of polar and non-polar amino acids on tertiary structure of proteins (HL)1 deck16 cards
B1.2.11 Quaternary structure of non-conjugated and conjugated proteins (HL)1 deck16 cards
B1.2.12 Relationship of form and function in globular and fibrous proteins (HL)1 deck20 cards
B2.1.1 Lipid bilayers as the basis of cell membranes1 deck16 cards
B2.1.2 Lipid bilayers as barriers1 deck17 cards
B2.1.3 Simple diffusion across membranes1 deck17 cards
B2.1.4 Integral and peripheral proteins in membranes1 deck13 cards
B2.1.5 Movement of water molecules across membranes by osmosis and the role of aquaporins1 deck15 cards
B2.1.6 Channel proteins for facilitated diffusion1 deck16 cards
B2.1.7 Pump proteins for active transport1 deck15 cards
B2.1.8 Selectivity in membrane permeability1 deck20 cards
B2.1.9 Structure and function of glycoproteins and glycolipids1 deck20 cards
B2.1.10 Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure1 deck19 cards
B2.1.11 Relationships between fatty acid composition of lipid bilayers and their fluidity (HL)1 deck19 cards
B2.1.12 Cholesterol and membrane fluidity in animal cells (HL)1 deck18 cards
B2.1.13 Membrane fluidity and the fusion and formation of vesicles (HL)1 deck14 cards
B2.1.14 Gated ion channels in neurons (HL)1 deck21 cards
B2.1.15 Sodium–potassium pumps as an example of exchange transporters (HL)1 deck23 cards
B2.1.17 Adhesion of cells to form tissues (HL)1 deck15 cards
B2.2.1 Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions1 deck24 cards
B2.2.2 Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments1 deck18 cards
B2.2.3 Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells1 deck15 cards
B2.2.4 Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration (HL)1 deck20 cards
B2.2.5 Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis (HL)1 deck14 cards
B2.2.6 Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus (HL)1 deck15 cards
B2.2.7 Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (HL)1 deck19 cards
B2.2.8 Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus (HL)1 deck16 cards
B2.2.9 Structure and function of vesicles in cells (HL)1 deck22 cards
B2.3.1 Production of unspecialized cells following fertilization and their development1 deck15 cards
B2.3.2 Properties of stem cells1 deck12 cards
B2.3.3 Location and function of stem cell niches in adult humans1 deck19 cards
B2.3.4 Differences between totipotent, pluripotent and multipotent stem cells1 deck17 cards
B2.3.5 Cell size as an aspect of specialization1 deck21 cards
B2.3.6 Surface area-to-volume ratios and constraints on cell size1 deck21 cards
B2.3.7 Adaptations to increase surface area-to-volume ratios of cells (HL)1 deck15 cards
B2.3.8 Adaptations of type I and type II pneumocytes in alveoli (HL)1 deck20 cards
B2.3.9 Adaptations of cardiac muscle cells and striated muscle fibres (HL)1 deck20 cards
B2.3.10 Adaptations of sperm and egg cells (HL)1 deck15 cards
B3.1.1 Gas exchange as a vital function in all organisms1 deck21 cards
B3.1.2 Properties of gas-exchange surfaces1 deck20 cards
B3.1.3 Maintenance of concentration gradients at exchange surfaces in animals1 deck15 cards
B3.1.4 Adaptations of mammalian lungs for gas exchange1 deck15 cards
B3.1.5 Ventilation of the lungs1 deck74 cards
B3.1.6 Measurement of lung volumes1 deck21 cards
B3.1.7 Adaptations for gas exchange in leaves1 deck19 cards
B3.1.8 Distribution of tissues in a leaf1 deck10 cards
B3.1.9 Transpiration as a consequence of gas exchange in a leaf1 deck19 cards
B3.1.10 Stomatal density1 deck18 cards
B3.1.11 Adaptations of foetal and adult haemoglobin for the transport of oxygen (HL)1 deck20 cards
B3.1.12 Bohr shift (HL)1 deck14 cards
B3.1.13 Oxygen dissociation curves (HL)1 deck15 cards
B3.2.1 Adaptations of capillaries for exchange of materials1 deck20 cards
B3.2.2 Structure of arteries and veins1 deck20 cards
B3.2.3 Adaptations of arteries for the transport of blood away from the heart1 deck19 cards
B3.2.4 Measurement of pulse rates1 deck19 cards
B3.2.5 Adaptations of veins for the return of blood to the heart1 deck19 cards
B3.2.6 Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries1 deck20 cards
B3.2.7 Transport of water from roots to leaves during transpiration1 deck15 cards
B3.2.8 Adaptations of xylem vessels for transport of water1 deck19 cards
B3.2.9 Distribution of tissues in a transverse section of the stem of a dicotyledonous plant1 deck18 cards
B3.2.10 Distribution of tissues in a transverse section of the root of a dicotyledonous plant1 deck14 cards
B3.2.11 Release and reuptake of tissue fluid in capillaries (HL)1 deck18 cards
B3.2.12 Exchange of substances between tissue fluid and cells in tissues (HL)1 deck14 cards
B3.2.13 Drainage of excess tissue fluid into lymph ducts (HL)1 deck18 cards
B3.2.14 Differences between circulation of bony fish and of mammals (HL)1 deck21 cards
B3.2.15 Adaptations of the mammalian heart for delivering pressurized blood to the arteries (HL)1 deck18 cards
B3.2.16 Stages in the cardiac cycle (HL)1 deck23 cards
B3.2.17 Generation of root pressure in xylem vessels by active transport of mineral ions (HL)1 deck18 cards
B3.2.18 Adaptations of phloem sieve tubes and companion cells for translocation of sap (HL)1 deck19 cards
B3.3.1 Adaptations for movement as a universal feature of living organisms1 deck20 cards
B3.3.2 Sliding filament model of muscle contraction1 deck19 cards
B3.3.3 Role of the protein titin and antagonistic muscles in muscle relaxation1 deck19 cards
B3.3.4 Structure and function of motor units in skeletal muscle1 deck20 cards
B3.3.5 Roles of skeletons as anchorage for muscles and as levers1 deck18 cards
B3.3.6 Movement at a synovial joint1 deck20 cards
B3.3.7 Range of motion of a joint1 deck22 cards
B3.3.8 Internal and external intercostal muscles1 deck15 cards
B3.3.9 Reasons for locomotion1 deck13 cards
B3.3.10 Adaptations for swimming in marine mammals1 deck19 cards
B4.1.1 Habitat as the place in which a community, species, population or organism lives1 deck17 cards
B4.1.2 Adaptations of organisms to the abiotic environment of their habitat1 deck19 cards
B4.1.3 Abiotic variables affecting species distribution1 deck21 cards
B4.1.4 Range of tolerance of a limiting factor1 deck17 cards
B4.1.5 Conditions required for coral reef formation1 deck15 cards
B4.1.6 Abiotic factors as the determinants of terrestrial biome distribution1 deck23 cards
B4.1.7 Biomes as groups of ecosystems with similar communities1 deck17 cards
B4.1.8 Adaptations to life in hot deserts and tropical rainforest1 deck19 cards
B4.2.1 Ecological niche as the role of a species in an ecosystem1 deck15 cards
B4.2.2 Organisms that are obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes and obligate aerobes1 deck20 cards
B4.2.3 Photosynthesis as the mode of nutrition 1 deck21 cards
B4.2.4 Holozoic nutrition in animals1 deck20 cards
B4.2.5 Mixotrophic nutrition in some protists1 deck16 cards
B4.2.6 Saprotrophic nutrition in some fungi and bacteria1 deck22 cards
B4.2.7 Diversity of nutrition in archaea1 deck15 cards
B4.2.8 Dentition and the diet of omnivorous and herbivorous members of the family Hominidae 1 deck15 cards
B4.2.9 Adaptations of herbivores for feeding on plants and of plants for resisting herbivory1 deck20 cards
B4.2.10 Adaptations of predators1 deck20 cards
B4.2.11 Adaptations of plant form for harvesting light1 deck28 cards
B4.2.12 Fundamental and realized niches1 deck14 cards
B4.2.13 Competitive exclusion and the uniqueness of ecological niches1 deck9 cards
C1.1.1 Enzymes as catalysts1 deck23 cards
C1.1.2 Role of enzymes in metabolism1 deck16 cards
C1.1.3 Anabolic and catabolic reactions1 deck14 cards
C1.1.4 Enzymes as globular proteins with an active site for catalysis1 deck21 cards
C1.1.5 Interactions between substrate and active site to allow induced-fit binding1 deck20 cards
C1.1.6 Role of molecular motion and substrate-active site collisions in enzyme catalysis1 deck15 cards
C1.1.7 The structure of the active site, enzyme–substrate specificity and denaturation1 deck10 cards
C1.1.8 Effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme activity1 deck18 cards
C1.1.9 Measurements in enzyme-catalysed reactions1 deck23 cards
C1.1.10 Effect of enzymes on activation energy1 deck18 cards
C1.1.11 Intracellular and extracellular enzyme-catalysed reactions (HL)1 deck21 cards
C1.1.12 Generation of heat energy by the reactions of metabolism (HL)1 deck22 cards
C1.1.13 Cyclical and linear pathways in metabolism (HL)1 deck21 cards
C1.1.14 Allosteric sites and non-competitive inhibition (HL)1 deck15 cards
C1.1.15 Competitive inhibition (HL)1 deck16 cards
C1.1.16 Regulation of metabolic pathways by feedback inhibition (HL)1 deck15 cards
C1.1.17 Mechanism-based inhibition (HL)1 deck17 cards
C1.2.1 ATP as the molecule that distributes energy within cells1 deck19 cards
C1.2.2 Life processes within cells that ATP supplies with energy1 deck16 cards
C1.2.3 Energy transfers during interconversions between ATP and ADP1 deck17 cards
C1.2.4 Cell respiration1 deck21 cards
C1.2.5 Differences between anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration in humans1 deck15 cards
C1.2.6 Variables affecting the rate of cell respiration1 deck20 cards
C1.2.7 Role of NAD as a carrier of hydrogen (HL)1 deck19 cards
C1.2.8 Conversion of glucose to pyruvate (HL)1 deck21 cards
C1.2.9 Conversion of pyruvate to lactate (HL)1 deck16 cards
C1.2.10 Anaerobic cell respiration in yeast and its use in brewing and baking (HL)1 deck19 cards
C1.2.11 Oxidation and decarboxylation of pyruvate (HL)1 deck16 cards
C1.2.12 Oxidation and decarboxylation of acetyl groups in the Krebs cycle (HL)1 deck20 cards
C1.2.13 Transfer of energy by reduced NAD (HL)1 deck14 cards
C1.2.14 Generation of a proton gradient (HL)1 deck15 cards
C1.2.15 Chemiosmosis and the synthesis of ATP in the mitochondrion (HL)1 deck18 cards
C1.2.16 Role of oxygen as terminal electron acceptor in aerobic cell respiration (HL)1 deck19 cards
C1.2.17 Differences between lipids and carbohydrates as respiratory substrates (HL)1 deck21 cards
C1.3.1 Transformation of light energy to chemical energy1 deck17 cards
C1.3.2 Conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose in photosynthesis1 deck15 cards
C1.3.3 Oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis1 deck19 cards
C1.3.4 Separation and identification of photosynthetic pigments by chromatography1 deck15 cards
C1.3.5 Absorption of specific wavelengths of light by photosynthetic pigments1 deck16 cards
C1.3.6 Similarities and differences of absorption and action spectra1 deck19 cards
C1.3.7 The effects of limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis1 deck20 cards
C1.3.8 Carbon dioxide enrichment experiments1 deck22 cards
C1.3.9 Photosystems (HL)1 deck20 cards
C1.3.10 Advantages of the structured array of different types of pigment molecules (HL)1 deck20 cards
C1.3.11 Generation of oxygen by the photolysis of water in photosystem II (HL)1 deck18 cards
C1.3.12 ATP production by chemiosmosis in thylakoids (HL)1 deck15 cards
C1.3.13 Reduction of NADP by photosystem I (HL)1 deck21 cards
C1.3.14 Thylakoids as systems for performing the light-dependent photosynthesis reactions (HL)1 deck16 cards
C1.3.15 Carbon fixation by Rubisco (HL)1 deck19 cards
C1.3.16 Synthesis of triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP (HL)1 deck18 cards
C1.3.17 Regeneration of RuBP in the Calvin cycle using ATP (HL)1 deck17 cards
C1.3.18 Synthesis of carbohydrates, amino acids and other carbon compounds (HL)1 deck20 cards
C1.3.19 Interdependence of the light-dependent and light-independent reactions (HL)1 deck15 cards
C2.1.1 Receptors1 deck16 cards
C2.1.2 Cell signalling by bacteria in quorum sensing1 deck16 cards
C2.1.3 Hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines and calcium ions1 deck21 cards
C2.1.4 Chemical diversity of hormones and neurotransmitters1 deck18 cards
C2.1.5 Localized and distant effects of signalling molecules1 deck21 cards
C2.1.6 Transmembrane receptors VS Intracellular receptors1 deck20 cards
C2.1.7 Initiation of signal transduction pathways by receptors1 deck19 cards
C2.1.8 Transmembrane receptors for neurotransmitters and changes to membrane potential1 deck19 cards
C2.1.9 Transmembrane receptors that activate G proteins1 deck20 cards
C2.1.10 Mechanism of action of epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors1 deck17 cards
C2.1.11 Transmembrane receptors with tyrosine kinase activity1 deck20 cards
C2.1.12 Intracellular receptors that affect gene expression1 deck15 cards
C2.1.13 Effects of the hormones oestradiol and progesterone on target cells1 deck16 cards
C2.1.14 Regulation of cell signalling pathways by positive and negative feedback1 deck15 cards
C2.2.1 Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical impulses1 deck18 cards
C2.2.2 Generation of the resting potential by pumping1 deck19 cards
C2.2.3 Nerve impulses as action potentials that are propagated along nerve fibres1 deck13 cards
C2.2.4 Variation in the speed of nerve impulses1 deck20 cards
C2.2.5 Synapses as junctions between neurons and between neurons and effector cells1 deck13 cards
C2.2.6 Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic membrane1 deck20 cards
C2.2.7 Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential1 deck20 cards
C2.2.8 Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials (HL)1 deck19 cards
C2.2.9 Propagation of an action potential along a nerve fibre/axon (HL)1 deck15 cards
C2.2.10 Oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials (HL)1 deck15 cards
C2.2.11 Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres to achieve faster impulses (HL)1 deck18 cards
C2.2.12 Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission (HL)1 deck19 cards
C2.2.13 Inhibitory neurotransmitters and generation of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (HL)1 deck15 cards
C2.2.14 Summation of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters (HL)1 deck17 cards
C2.2.15 Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin (HL)1 deck8 cards
C2.2.16 Consciousness (HL)1 deck15 cards
C3.1.1 System integration1 deck18 cards
C3.1.2 Cells, tissues, organs and body systems1 deck13 cards
C3.1.3 Integration of organs in animal bodies 1 deck22 cards
C3.1.4 The brain as a central information integration organ1 deck8 cards
C3.1.5 The spinal cord as an integrating centre for unconscious processes1 deck20 cards
C3.1.6 Input to the spinal cord and cerebral hemispheres through sensory neurons1 deck18 cards
C3.1.7 Output from the cerebral hemispheres to muscles through motor neurons1 deck14 cards
C3.1.8 Nerves as bundles of nerve fibres of both sensory and motor neurons1 deck17 cards
C3.1.9 Pain reflex arcs1 deck16 cards
C3.1.10 Role of the cerebellum in coordinating skeletal muscle contraction and balance1 deck19 cards
C3.1.11 Modulation of sleep patterns by melatonin secretion as a part of circadian rhythms1 deck15 cards
C3.1.12 Epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion by the adrenal glands1 deck20 cards
C3.1.13 Control of the endocrine system1 deck15 cards
C3.1.14 Feedback control of heart rate1 deck18 cards
C3.1.15 Feedback control of ventilation rate1 deck20 cards
C3.1.16 Control of peristalsis in the digestive system1 deck19 cards
C3.1.17 Observations of tropic responses in seedlings (HL)1 deck19 cards
C3.1.18 Positive phototropism (HL)1 deck19 cards
C3.1.19 Phytohormones (HL)1 deck17 cards
C3.1.20 Auxin efflux carriers (HL)1 deck16 cards
C3.1.21 Promotion of cell growth by auxin (HL)1 deck16 cards
C3.1.22 Interactions between auxin and cytokinin (HL)1 deck20 cards
C3.1.23 Positive feedback in fruit ripening and ethylene production (HL)1 deck21 cards
C3.2.1 Pathogens as the cause of infectious diseases1 deck20 cards
C3.2.2 Skin and mucous membranes as a primary defence1 deck16 cards
C3.2.3 Sealing of cuts in skin by blood clotting1 deck21 cards
C3.2.4 Differences between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system1 deck19 cards
C3.2.5 Infection control by phagocytes1 deck18 cards
C3.2.6 Lymphocytes as cells in the adaptive immune system that cooperate to produce antibodies1 deck19 cards
C3.2.7 Antigens as recognition molecules that trigger antibody production1 deck17 cards
C3.2.8 Activation of B-lymphocytes by helper T-lymphocytes1 deck18 cards
C3.2.9 Multiplication of activated B-lymphocytes1 deck20 cards
C3.2.10 Immunity as a consequence of retaining memory cells1 deck18 cards
C3.2.11 Transmission of HIV in body fluids1 deck18 cards
C3.2.12 Infection of lymphocytes by HIV with AIDS as a consequence1 deck19 cards
C3.2.13 Antibiotics 1 deck19 cards
C3.2.14 Evolution of resistance to several antibiotics1 deck17 cards
C3.2.15 Zoonoses1 deck23 cards
C3.2.16 Vaccines and immunization1 deck20 cards
C3.2.17 Herd immunity and the prevention of epidemics1 deck16 cards
C3.2.18 Evaluation of data related to the COVID-19 pandemic1 deck19 cards
C4.1.1 Populations1 deck20 cards
C4.1.2 Estimation of population size by random sampling1 deck15 cards
C4.1.3 Random quadrat sampling to estimate population size for sessile organisms1 deck19 cards
C4.1.4 Capture–mark–release–recapture and the Lincoln index1 deck21 cards
C4.1.5 Carrying capacity and competition for limited resources1 deck11 cards
C4.1.6 Negative feedback control of population size by density-dependent factors1 deck16 cards
C4.1.7 Population growth curves1 deck15 cards
C4.1.8 Modelling of the sigmoid population growth curve1 deck23 cards
C4.1.9 Competition versus cooperation in intraspecific relationships1 deck19 cards
C4.1.10 A community as all of the interacting organisms in an ecosystem1 deck20 cards
C4.1.11 Herbivory, predation, interspecific competition, mutualism, parasitism and pathogenicity1 deck24 cards
C4.1.12 Mutualism as an interspecific relationship that benefits both species1 deck17 cards
C4.1.13 Resource competition between endemic and invasive species1 deck19 cards
C4.1.14 Tests for interspecific competition1 deck19 cards
C4.1.15 Use of the chi-squared test for association between two species1 deck19 cards
C4.1.16 Predator–prey relationships1 deck18 cards
C4.1.17 Top-down and bottom-up control of populations in communities1 deck18 cards
C4.1.18 Allelopathy and secretion of antibiotics1 deck22 cards
C4.2.1 Ecosystems1 deck19 cards
C4.2.2 Sunlight1 deck18 cards
C4.2.3 Flow of chemical energy through food chains1 deck14 cards
C4.2.4 Construction of food chains and food webs1 deck22 cards
C4.2.5 Supply of energy to decomposers1 deck21 cards
C4.2.6 Autotrophs1 deck15 cards
C4.2.7 Use of light as the external energy source1 deck19 cards
C4.2.8 Heterotrophs1 deck15 cards
C4.2.9 Release of energy in both autotrophs and heterotrophs1 deck15 cards
C4.2.10 Classification of organisms into trophic levels1 deck7 cards
C4.2.11 Construction of energy pyramids1 deck15 cards
C4.2.12 Reductions in energy availability at each successive stage in food chains1 deck21 cards
C4.2.13 Heat loss to the environment in both autotrophs and heterotrophs1 deck16 cards
C4.2.14 Restrictions on the number of trophic levels in ecosystems1 deck14 cards
C4.2.15 Primary production as accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by autotrophs1 deck15 cards
C4.2.16 Secondary production as accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by heterotrophs1 deck117 cards
C4.2.17 Constructing carbon cycle diagrams1 deck7 cards
C4.2.18 Ecosystems as carbon sinks and carbon sources1 deck19 cards
C4.2.19 Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during combustion1 deck14 cards
C4.2.20 Analysis of the Keeling Curve in terms of photosynthesis, respiration and combustion1 deck17 cards
C4.2.21 Dependence of aerobic respiration on atmospheric oxygen produced by photosynthesis1 deck16 cards
C4.2.22 Recycling of all chemical elements required by living organisms in ecosystems1 deck19 cards
D1.1.1 DNA replication1 deck20 cards
D1.1.2 Semi-conservative nature of DNA replication1 deck19 cards
D1.1.3 Role of helicase and DNA polymerase in DNA replication1 deck18 cards
D1.1.4 Polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis1 deck20 cards
D1.1.5 Applications of polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis1 deck18 cards
D1.1.6 Directionality of DNA polymerases (HL)1 deck16 cards
D1.1.7 Differences between replication on the leading strand and the lagging strand (HL)1 deck18 cards
D1.1.8 DNA primase, DNA polymerase I, DNA polymerase III and DNA ligase in replication (HL)1 deck20 cards
D1.1.9 DNA proofreading (HL)1 deck19 cards
D1.2.1 Transcription as the synthesis of RNA using a DNA template1 deck20 cards
D1.2.2 Role of hydrogen bonding and complementary base pairing in transcription1 deck14 cards
D1.2.3 Stability of DNA templates1 deck20 cards
D1.2.4 Transcription as a process required for the expression of genes1 deck12 cards
D1.2.5 Translation as the synthesis of polypeptides from mRNA1 deck20 cards
D1.2.6 Roles of mRNA, ribosomes and tRNA in translation1 deck18 cards
D1.2.7 Complementary base pairing between tRNA and mRNA1 deck15 cards
D1.2.8 Features of the genetic code1 deck17 cards
D1.2.9 Using the genetic code expressed as a table of mRNA codons1 deck8 cards
D1.2.10 Stepwise movement of the ribosome along mRNA1 deck12 cards
D1.2.11 Mutations that change protein structure1 deck16 cards
D1.2.12 Directionality of transcription and translation (HL)1 deck20 cards
D1.2.13 Initiation of transcription at the promoter (HL)1 deck17 cards
D1.2.14 Non-coding sequences in DNA do not code for polypeptides (HL)1 deck19 cards
D1.2.15 Post-transcriptional modification in eukaryotic cells (HL)1 deck15 cards
D1.2.16 Alternative splicing of exons to produce variants of a protein from a single gene (HL)1 deck17 cards
D1.2.17 Initiation of translation (HL)1 deck15 cards
D1.2.18 Modification of polypeptides into their functional state (HL)1 deck18 cards
D1.2.19 Recycling of amino acids by proteasomes (HL)1 deck20 cards
D1.3.1 Gene mutations as structural changes to genes at the molecular level1 deck18 cards
D1.3.2 Consequences of base substitutions1 deck19 cards
D1.3.3 Consequences of insertions and deletions1 deck18 cards
D1.3.4 Causes of gene mutation1 deck17 cards
D1.3.5 Randomness in mutation1 deck14 cards
D1.3.6 Consequences of mutation in germ cells and somatic cells1 deck15 cards
D1.3.7 Mutation as a source of genetic variation1 deck13 cards
D1.3.8 Gene knockout (HL)1 deck14 cards
D1.3.9 Use of the CRISPR sequences and the enzyme Cas9 in gene editing (HL)1 deck15 cards
D1.3.10 Hypotheses to account for conserved or highly conserved sequences in genes (HL)1 deck20 cards
D2.1.1 Generation of new cells in living organisms by cell division1 deck14 cards
D2.1.2 Cytokinesis as splitting of cytoplasm in a parent cell between daughter cells1 deck19 cards
D2.1.3 Equal and unequal cytokinesis1 deck15 cards
D2.1.4 Roles of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes1 deck20 cards
D2.1.5 DNA replication as a prerequisite for both mitosis and meiosis1 deck18 cards
D2.1.6 Condensation and movement of chromosomes as shared features of mitosis and meiosis1 deck13 cards
D2.1.7 Phases of mitosis1 deck20 cards
D2.1.8 Identification of phases of mitosis1 deck22 cards
D2.1.9 Meiosis as a reduction division1 deck23 cards
D2.1.10 Down syndrome and non-disjunction1 deck17 cards
D2.1.11 Meiosis as a source of variation1 deck15 cards
D2.1.12 Cell proliferation for growth, cell replacement and tissue repair (HL)1 deck20 cards
D2.1.13 Phases of the cell cycle (HL)1 deck18 cards
D2.1.14 Cell growth during interphase (HL)1 deck19 cards
D2.1.15 Control of the cell cycle using cyclins (HL)1 deck14 cards
D2.1.16 Consequences of mutations in genes that control the cell cycle (HL)1 deck14 cards
D2.1.17 Differences between tumours (HL)1 deck15 cards
D2.2.1 Gene expression1 deck20 cards
D2.2.2 Regulation of transcription by proteins1 deck19 cards
D2.2.3 Control of the degradation of mRNA1 deck14 cards
D2.2.4 Epigenesis 1 deck16 cards
D2.2.5 Differences between the genome, transcriptome and proteome of individual cells1 deck20 cards
D2.2.6 Methylation of the promoter and histones in nucleosomes as examples of epigenetic tags1 deck19 cards
D2.2.7 Epigenetic inheritance through heritable changes to gene expression1 deck20 cards
D2.2.8 Examples of environmental effects on gene expression in cells and organisms1 deck22 cards
D2.2.9 Consequences of removal of most but not all epigenetic tags from the ovum and sperm1 deck9 cards
D2.2.10 Monozygotic twin studies1 deck16 cards
D2.2.11 External factors impacting the pattern of gene expression1 deck14 cards
D2.3.1 Solvation with water as the solvent1 deck16 cards
D2.3.2 Water movement from less concentrated to more concentrated solutions1 deck18 cards
D2.3.3 Water movement by osmosis into or out of cells1 deck17 cards
D2.3.4 Changes due to water movement in plant tissue1 deck18 cards
D2.3.5 Effects of water movement on cells that lack a cell wall1 deck19 cards
D2.3.6 Effects of water movement on cells with a cell wall1 deck16 cards
D2.3.7 Medical applications of isotonic solutions1 deck15 cards
D2.3.8 Water potential as the potential energy of water per unit volume (HL)1 deck20 cards
D2.3.9 Movement of water from higher to lower water potential (HL)1 deck18 cards
D2.3.10 Contributions of solute potential and pressure potential to the water potential (HL)1 deck20 cards
D2.3.11 Water potential and water movements in plant tissue (HL)1 deck18 cards
D3.1.1 Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction1 deck21 cards
D3.1.2 Role of meiosis and fusion of gametes in the sexual life cycle1 deck16 cards
D3.1.3 Differences between male and female sexes in sexual reproduction1 deck16 cards
D3.1.4 Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems1 deck21 cards
D3.1.5 Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation1 deck18 cards
D3.1.6 Fertilization in humans1 deck16 cards
D3.1.7 Use of hormones in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment1 deck20 cards
D3.1.8 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants1 deck21 cards
D3.1.9 Features of an insect-pollinated flower1 deck21 cards
D3.1.10 Methods of promoting cross-pollination1 deck15 cards
D3.1.11 Self-incompatibility mechanisms to increase genetic variation within a species1 deck16 cards
D3.1.12 Dispersal and germination of seeds1 deck20 cards
D3.1.13 Control of the developmental changes of puberty (HL)1 deck15 cards
D3.1.14 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans (HL)1 deck25 cards
D3.1.15 Mechanisms to prevent polyspermy (HL)1 deck19 cards
D3.1.16 Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the endometrium (HL)1 deck23 cards
D3.1.17 Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic gonadotropin secretion (HL)1 deck15 cards
D3.1.18 Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus (HL)1 deck16 cards
D3.1.19 Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth (HL)1 deck20 cards
D3.1.20 Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart disease (HL)1 deck15 cards
D3.2.1 Production of haploid gametes in parents1 deck15 cards
D3.2.2 Methods for conducting genetic crosses in flowering plants1 deck19 cards
D3.2.3 Genotype as the combination of alleles inherited by an organism1 deck18 cards
D3.2.4 Phenotype1 deck18 cards
D3.2.5 Effects of dominant and recessive alleles on phenotype1 deck17 cards
D3.2.6 Phenotypic plasticity1 deck15 cards
D3.2.7 Phenylketonuria1 deck19 cards
D3.2.8 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and multiple alleles in gene pools1 deck15 cards
D3.2.9 ABO blood groups as an example of multiple alleles1 deck21 cards
D3.2.10 Incomplete dominance and codominance1 deck15 cards
D3.2.11 Sex determination in humans and inheritance of genes on sex chromosomes1 deck16 cards
D3.2.12 Haemophilia as an example of a sex-linked genetic disorder1 deck15 cards
D3.2.13 Pedigree charts to deduce patterns of inheritance of genetic disorders1 deck19 cards
D3.2.14 Continuous variation due to polygenic inheritance and/or environmental factors1 deck18 cards
D3.2.15 Box-and-whisker plots to represent data for a continuous variable such as student height1 deck16 cards
D3.2.16 Segregation and independent assortment of unlinked genes in meiosis (HL)1 deck17 cards
D3.2.17 Punnett grids for predicting genotypic and phenotypic ratios in dihybrid crosses (HL)1 deck21 cards
D3.2.18 Loci of human genes and their polypeptide products (HL)1 deck16 cards
D3.2.19 Autosomal gene linkage (HL)1 deck15 cards
D3.2.20 Recombinants in crosses involving two linked or unlinked genes (HL)1 deck19 cards
D3.2.21 Use of a chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses (HL)1 deck16 cards
D3.3.1 Homeostasis1 deck23 cards
D3.3.2 Negative feedback loops in homeostasis1 deck15 cards
D3.3.3 Regulation of blood glucose as an example of the role of hormones in homeostasis1 deck21 cards
D3.3.4 Physiological changes that form the basis of type 1 and type 2 diabetes1 deck17 cards
D3.3.5 Thermoregulation as an example of negative feedback control1 deck15 cards
D3.3.6 Thermoregulation mechanisms in humans1 deck19 cards
D3.3.7 Role of the kidney in osmoregulation and excretion (HL)1 deck22 cards
D3.3.8 Role of the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule and proximal convoluted tubule in excretion (HL)1 deck20 cards
D3.3.9 Role of the loop of Henle (HL)1 deck19 cards
D3.3.10 Osmoregulation by water reabsorption in the collecting ducts (HL)1 deck19 cards
D3.3.11 Changes in blood supply to organs in response to changes in activity (HL)1 deck19 cards
D4.1.1 Natural selection as the mechanism driving evolutionary change1 deck16 cards
D4.1.2 Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction1 deck13 cards
D4.1.3 Overproduction of offspring and competition for resources 1 deck20 cards
D4.1.4 Abiotic factors as selection pressures1 deck20 cards
D4.1.5 Differences between individuals in adaptation, survival and reproduction1 deck19 cards
D4.1.6 Requirement that traits are heritable for evolutionary change to occur1 deck15 cards
D4.1.7 Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species1 deck13 cards
D4.1.8 Modelling of sexual and natural selection1 deck15 cards
D4.1.9 Concept of the gene pool (HL)1 deck15 cards
D4.1.10 Allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations (HL)1 deck16 cards
D4.1.11 Changes in allele frequency in the gene pool (HL)1 deck15 cards
D4.1.12 Differences between directional, disruptive and stabilizing selection (HL)1 deck16 cards
D4.1.13 Hardy–Weinberg equation and calculations of allele or genotype frequencies (HL)1 deck24 cards
D4.1.14 Hardy–Weinberg conditions (HL)1 deck19 cards
D4.1.15 Artificial selection by deliberate choice of traits (HL)1 deck20 cards
D4.2.1 Stability as a property of natural ecosystems1 deck18 cards
D4.2.2 Requirements for stability in ecosystems1 deck19 cards
D4.2.3 Deforestation of Amazon rainforest 1 deck21 cards
D4.2.4 Use of a model to investigate the effect of variables on ecosystem stability1 deck15 cards
D4.2.5 Role of keystone species in the stability of ecosystems1 deck15 cards
D4.2.6 Assessing sustainability of resource harvesting from natural ecosystems1 deck20 cards
D4.2.7 Factors affecting the sustainability of agriculture1 deck20 cards
D4.2.8 Eutrophication of aquatic and marine ecosystems due to leaching1 deck16 cards
D4.2.9 Biomagnification of pollutants in natural ecosystems1 deck19 cards
D4.2.10 Effects of microplastic and macroplastic pollution of the oceans1 deck21 cards
D4.2.11 Restoration of natural processes in ecosystems by rewilding1 deck19 cards
D4.2.12 Ecological succession and its causes (HL)1 deck14 cards
D4.2.13 Changes occurring during primary succession (HL)1 deck20 cards
D4.2.14 Cyclical succession in ecosystems (HL)1 deck10 cards
D4.2.15 Climax communities and arrested succession (HL)1 deck20 cards
D4.3.1 Anthropogenic causes of climate change1 deck26 cards
D4.3.2 Positive feedback cycles in global warming1 deck15 cards
D4.3.3 Change from net carbon accumulation to net loss in boreal forests1 deck22 cards
D4.3.4 Melting of landfast ice and sea ice as examples of polar habitat change1 deck16 cards
D4.3.5 Changes in ocean currents altering the timing and extent of nutrient upwelling1 deck19 cards
D4.3.6 Poleward and upslope range shifts of temperate species1 deck14 cards
D4.3.7 Threats to coral reefs as an example of potential ecosystem collapse1 deck20 cards
D4.3.8 Afforestation, forest regeneration and restoration of peat-forming wetlands1 deck18 cards
D4.3.9 Phenology as research into the timing of biological events (HL)1 deck20 cards
D4.3.10 Disruption to the synchrony of phenological events by climate change (HL)1 deck17 cards
D4.3.11 Increases to the number of insect life cycles within a year due to climate change (HL)1 deck19 cards
D4.3.12 Evolution as a consequence of climate change (HL)1 deck14 cards